For as long as humans have ventured into the seas, we’ve shared the waters together with sharks. These remarkable creatures hold the title for the world’s oldest evolutionary history of any living apex predator, with roots stretching back at least 400 million years—way older than the dinosaurs. While shark attacks are rare and often misunderstood, evidence of these encounters has left its bite mark even on ancient human memory. From the skeletal remains unearthed in Japan to mysterious discoveries in South America, the world’s oldest recorded shark attacks provide a glimpse into the early interactions between humans and these top marine predators. The Tsukumo No. 24 Skeleton (3,000 Years Ago) The Tsukumo No. 24 skeleton represents one of humanity’s oldest known encounters with a shark. Found in the Tsukumo Shell Mound, an ancient burial site near the Seto Inland Sea in Japan, this skeleton dates back to between 1370 and 1010 BCE, placing it firmly within the late Jomon Period. This era (spanning approximately 14,000 BCE to 300 BCE) was marked by the rich cultural and technological advancements of Japan’s ancient hunter-gatherer societies. The Jomon people were intricately connected to the sea for they relied on its bounty for food and also for conducting trade. Shell mounds like Tsukumo served both as refuse sites and as burial grounds, reflecting the deep relationship between these coastal communities and the marine environment. The Tsukumo site stands out for providing a vivid glimpse into the challenges and dangers these people faced. What distinguishes Tsukumo No. 24 is the shocking found evidence of a violent shark attack. The skeleton bore over 790 deep cuts, punctures and gouges across the bones—injuries matching the bite patterns of a large shark. Forensic analysis revealed that both of the man’s legs and one hand were missing, likely severed during the fatal encounter. The wounds suggest the predator was relentless as it attacked the man repeatedly. The identity of the shark remains speculative, but researchers point to either a tiger shark or a great white shark, both known to inhabit the Seto Inland Sea during that time. These species are opportunistic hunters and the victim was likely fishing or diving when the shark struck; mistaking his movements for prey or reacting to the commotion. What adds a poignant human dimension to this grim discovery is the evidence of the man’s recovery and burial. Despite the traumatic nature of his death, his remains were carefully retrieved and interred within the community’s cemetery, reflecting the social bonds and respect for the deceased among the Jomon people. This cultural act reflects their ability to adapt to the risks of their environment while maintaining strong communal ties. The Prehistoric Teenage Fisherman of Peru (6,000 Years Ago) Long before written records, the coastal communities of Ancient Peru viewed the ocean as both a lifeline and an unpredictable force of nature. The latter of which included a notable shark attack that affected the ancient coastal community. Among the earliest evidence of this reality is the skeletal remains of a teenage boy unearthed at a prehistoric site in Paloma, Peru, dating back to approximately 4,000 BCE. This teenager, estimated to be about 17 years old at the time of his death, provides a distressing glimpse into the life of his community. Likely in his prime years of contributing to his people’s sustenance, he may have been engaged in fishing when tragedy struck. As sharks are natural predators in coastal environments, it’s possible that either his movements or freshly caught fish triggered the attack. His skeleton revealed severe injuries consistent with a shark encounter: missing limbs, including arms and legs, alongside deep gouges and bite marks on the remaining bones. The violent confrontation with a large marine predator—potentially a tiger shark or bull shark—left lasting evidence of the risks faced. The fact that the community recovered the teenage boy’s body and buried him reflects their societal bond. His loss would have been felt with deep sadness across the community, as young people like him were vital contributors to the survival and prosperity of such small, tightly-knit coastal groups. This discovery also offers invaluable insight into the delicate balance these people maintained between harvesting the sea’s resources and contending with its dangers. The fisherman’s contributions to his community’s well-being, coupled with their care in recovering and honoring his remains, remind us of the enduring themes of unity and survival in early societies. Cases like this one from Peru also remind us that humanity’s relationship with the ocean is as much about risk as it is about reward. Herodotus’s Accounts of Shark Attacks (5th Century BCE) Though much later than both the Japanese and Peruvian discoveries, the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus recorded one of the world’s earliest written accounts of shark attacks through his monumental work, Histories. Writing in the 5th century BCE, Herodotus described how Persian sailors faced the wrath of “sea monsters,” likely sharks, during a naval expedition gone awry. In 492 BCE, during King Xerxes’ invasion of Greece, a storm wrecked a large number of Persian ships off the coast of Mount Athos. Herodotus recounts how numerous sailors were devoured by these so-called sea creatures, as survivors clinging to debris found themselves at the ocean’s mercy. While the exact species of sharks involved cannot be confirmed, the Mediterranean is known to be home to species like the great white shark and blue shark—both capable of such aggressive behavior. Herodotus’s vivid account reminds us of humanity’s ancient struggle with the forces of nature and the dangers of uncharted waters. His writings serve as a historical record of how sharks and other marine threats shaped early perceptions of the ocean’s perils. Understanding Ancient Interactions What makes these cases extraordinary is not just the evidence of shark attacks but what they reveal about ancient human life. In such instances, the victims were likely fishing or gathering resources in waters, or aquatic habitats that humans happened to travel in, where sharks naturally hunt. Far from being deliberate aggressors, these
Hidden Identity of the ‘Dragon’ Mummy Revealed At Last
On this year 2025’s Father’s Day weekend, the film live adaptation of How to Train Your Dragon has dazzled audiences everywhere. The movie’s cutting-edge visual effects conjures the amazing imagery and magic of dragons, which in turn, has renewed peoples’ deep fascination for these mythic creatures with fresh hot energy. The film even soared to box-office success, thus proving that our interest in dragons is as resilient as ever. Yet, beyond the silver screen lies a real-world mystery wrapped in centuries of folklore. While the movie gave us Hiccup and Toothless, our real-life world presents us with the Koryu dragon mummy hailing from Japan. The Koryu (Rainbow Dragon) mummy has been long revered for its unforgettable features and rumored magical powers since medieval Japan. It is important to note that the dragon mummy has been cherished as an iconic treasure in one of the country’s most sacred Buddhist temples – the Todaiji Temple. Having charmed scholars with its serpentine appearance for generations and was believed to hold cosmic weather-controlling powers of summoning rain during the Muromachi Period (Japan’s medieval ages). The most exciting news of all, however, is that this ancient relic has finally been unmasked by science… and my goodness, the data results present us with an unexpected identity of the creature. With that being said, let us now present to you the identity of the dragon mummy, shall we? When you’re ready to find out the mummy’s identity… just keep scrolling below. Lo, and behold: It turns out that the mummy’s in fact an adult female Japanese marten (Martes melampus). Cousins to weasels rather than being cousins to giant reptilian creatures of myths. Standing at about 40 centimeters long (approx. 15.75 inches), the Koryu mummy’s enigmatic aura earned itself a legendary status. However, its transformation from myth to zoological fact was solidified through recent breakthroughs. Scientists deployed X-ray imaging and radiocarbon dating, discovering that its teeth and head bones confirmed its mammalian origins rather than reptilian or supernatural. The dating pinpointed its age as between the 11th and 12th centuries. The intriguing history of the Koryu mummy bridges folklore with science too. The mummy’s first documented connection to dragon myths takes us to the year 1429. It was in this timeframe when the Muromachi shogun (commander-in-chiefs during medieval Japan) named Ashikaga Yoshinori would have his fateful encounter with the mummy during his visit to Todaiji Temple in Nara – one of Japan’s oldest cities. Nara’s Todaiji Temple contains a storehouse called the Shōsōin Repository where prized religious artifacts and treasures were kept, such as the valuable Ranjatai agarwood and of course.. the enigmatic Koryu mummy. When Ashikaga Yoshinori visited the repository in 1429 to handle relics such as the Ranjatai, he would eventually encounter the Koryu mummy by chance with the assistance of the temple monks. Its dried, dragon-like appearance captivated the shogun’s first sight. After gazing into the mummy and marveling at its otherworldly looks, the shogun likened it to a mythical Koryu – rainbow or flood dragons of East Asia – thus sparking the mummy’s association with these legendary creatures in historical records. Diaries from Todaiji Temple’s monks during that time period have recorded the shogun’s visit, and ever since then, the dragon mummy became further entwined with local folklore. That was when the citizens of Nara believed the mummy’s presence could summon rain whenever the repository was opened, as Eastern dragons were associated with both the weather and water; in contrast to the Western dragon’s fiery nature. While skeptics might assume this marten to have simply wandered into the repository and succumbed to its death either by old age or starvation, researchers have speculated that the temple’s monks may have intentionally preserved or assembled these displays. Then, there’s more: the marten wasn’t the only ‘dragon’ mummy found in the storehouse. Fragmented parts of other so-called ‘Koryu’ mummies were also unveiled from Todaiji Temple. These parts have been revealed to be mole legs and bird bones. This additional find has led researchers to hypothesize that monks might have curated these relics to craft fantastical displays, possibly to captivate or inspire awe among the local community. However, this remains speculative and not definitively proven (as of June 2025). To further add mystery to this whole discovery, the research team reported an uncanny alignment with the past. Listen to this: during preparations for the investigation of the Koryu mummies, heavy rain popped up out of the blue. This heavy rain disrupted the team’s plans and gave them quite a memorable experience. One could say that this was a playful nod to the Koryu dragon’s legendary status as a rain-bringer. Coincidence perhaps? Who knows. From myth to marten, the Koryu embodies a beautiful tapestry of history, natural science, and human imagination. While its identity has now been demystified, its story continues to enchant us, reminding us of the treasures hidden at the crossroads of fact and folklore. Even though its true nature has been revealed, the Koryu remains cherished to the city of Nara and its people. For in the creative minds of mankind, the symbolism of dragons still endures and captivates our imaginations in its supernatural form. Look no further than the movie How to Train Your Dragon, which continues to win the box office as its story rekindles humanity’s timeless dream of dragons. Header Image: Zoomed in photograph of the dragon mummy. From the No. 47 Bulletin of Office of the Shōsōin Treasure House. References: 1. Imai, Kunihiko. “Experts Identify the Species of Shosoin’s Famed ‘Dragon’ Mummy.” Asahi Shimbun, 24 Apr. 2025, www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/15723856. 2. Odeen-Isbister, Sara. “Mystery of 600-Year-Old Mummified ‘Dragon’ Solved.” MSN News, www.msn.com/en-sg/news/other/mystery-of-600-year-old-mummified-dragon-solved/ar-AA1GFoH3. 3. Margolis, Andrea. “Experts Solve Mystery of Ancient ‘Mummified Dragon’ Discovered by Japanese Shogun.” Fox News, 27 May 2025, www.foxnews.com/travel/experts-solve-mystery-ancient-mummified-dragon-discovered-japanese-shogun.
Mystery Volcano Behind Enormous 1831 Eruption Identified
Between the years of 1831 and 1833 the northern hemisphere was a lot cooler than it should have been. Scientists have long known that this significant and sudden cooling was caused by an enormous volcanic eruption in the year 1831, but the precise location of the volcano behind the climate change has long been a mystery. Now, a new study from a team at the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences in the University of St Andrews and published in PNAS has revealed the identity of the volcano responsible, and also sheds light on why it took so long to find. The culprit is the Zavaritskii volcano on Simushir island in the remote Kurils, an isolated island chain between Japan and the far east of Russia. We know about the cooling in these years because of trace chemicals trapped in ice cores which correspond to this date, as well as contemporary accounts. The entire period of c1800 to 1850 was characterized by repeated global volcanic events, which contributed to a prolonged cooling of the planet over this period, known as the last phase of the “Little Ice Age.” These eruptions include the famous Indonesian eruption of Tambora in 1815, the Nicaraguan eruption of Cosegüina in 1835 and two more unknown eruptions in 1808/9 and 1831, the latter of which is the subject of this study. Combined this series of eruptions injected significant amounts of sulfur into the atmosphere which blocked sunlight and cooled the surface of the planet. The 1831 eruption disrupted the monsoon and led to major famines in India. Contemporary accounts also talk of spectacular colors in the sky across multiple locations in the northern hemisphere, blues, greens and purples caused by the scattering of solar radiation in a dense volcanic aerosol plume. It had been thought that this 1831 eruption might have been the Babuyan Claro volcano in the Philippines, but there was no firm evidence from historical sources that this volcano erupted at that time. Another candidate was Ferdinandea, a volcano some 50km southwest of Sicily which definitely did erupt in 1831, but it was simply too small an eruption and did not produce nearly enough atmospheric sulfur to match that trapped in the sampled ice cores. It was an analysis of the glass tephra shards (fragments ejected from the eruption) that allowed the team to home in on the volcano responsible. The composition did not match Ferdinandea at all, and the closest match was to either Japan or the Kuril islands. Volcanic eruptions in 19th century Japan were well documented, excluding that location as a source. This left the Kurils, and specifically Simushir island where the largest deposits of the tephra were found. Eventually the search was narrowed down to the Zavaritskii volcano on the island. Is this a slam dunk? Not entirely, but the match is compelling and it seems we now know the origin of another major contributor to the coldest period in the last 500 years. Original Study: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2416699122. Header Image: Big Bada Boom! Simushir Island in the Kurils with the Zavaritskii caldera in the center. Source: NASA / Public Domain.
The Rise of the Shogun: How Japan Found Peace
Japan is, perhaps more than any other country, strange to the west. There are many far off lands and many exotic cultures, but that of the Japanese, even today, stands apart. There are good reasons for this, to be sure. For 250 years Japan chose to isolate herself from the rest of the world. Under the Sakoku Edict she followed her own path, free from intermingling and from outside influence of almost any kind. Such a choice has far-reaching consequences, creating a land which developed along its own path and which remained this way until, overtaken as much by global events as by choice, this ended in the latter half of the 19th century. Even now, 150 years later, her period of isolation casts a long shadow. So much for the end of her isolation. But what of its beginning? The story of the Sakoku Edict itself is, perhaps, not the key part of the story. Issued in 1635, it betrayed a Japanese ruler distrustful of foreign influence. This is not his story. The choice, and the ruler, came about through the desire of another man: for power, for peace, and for unity. This man was not a king, nor an Emperor. He was Tokugawa Ieyasu, and his title was Shogun. Western fascination with Japan has led to many loan words being abused and misused, dropped into new cultural contexts with their original meaning muddied by the imperfect translation. Ninja, samurai, shinobi, all have been borrowed and misapplied, and so it is with Shogun. A Shogun is not simply a warlord, or a military leader, as most translators would have it. On the simplest level it means “army commander” but this conveys only the smallest part of what it actually entails. Originally it was “sei-i taishōgun”, or “Chief Commander of the Army Raised to Conquer the Barbarians” but this, too, is not what the role became. A Shogun is not the Emperor, nor a regent as a result of this title, although ultimately it amounts to the same thing. He is a figure of power, backed by the army and a representation of order and enforced peace when it is most needed. He serves the Emperor, or the Emperor’s regents, but for vast stretches of Japanese history he was the ruler. The first Shogun appeared in the 9th century, and again in the 12th and 14th, always during periods of crisis and infighting and always awarded to the conquering victor. But with Ieyasu’s Shogunate, the title reached entered its greatest, most enduring, and final form. Peace Through Conquest This story starts with one man, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Although not born a noble, Hideyoshi rose to become a feudal lord, a warrior, and eventually Imperial Regent of Japan. He is considered one of the Great Unifiers of the Japanese people, and yet he was not made a Shogun. There is some dispute as to why he was not awarded this rank despite his unchallenged position as the ruler of a unified Japan. Some believe that his lowly birth prevented it, and others go so far as to assert that Shogun could only come from one clan, the ancient and revered Minamoto. Hideyoshi may not have had the title then, but he had the power. However it was his fate to fail in his last great military expedition, against the Korean peninsula, and to die leaving a child, his nephew Hidetsugu, as his heir. Hideyoshi created a council, the Council of Five Elders, to rule until Hidetsugu came of age. One of these five men was Tokugawa Ieyasu. Ieyasu was by this time in his late fifties, a seasoned warrior and political intriguer. He was also a ruthless man, well aware of how dangerous a world feudal Japan could be. He had proven himself a staunch ally of Hideyoshi, but he had ambitions of his own. And, as is almost always the case in such circumstances, it would not take long after Hideyoshi’s death for the members of the council to start jockeying for position and advantage. And history records that it was the ambitious Ieyasu who made the first move. Any overt attempt by a council member to advance their position directly would be extremely risky, and such a rash move could see the one who stepped out of line facing a united front of all the others. There were other ways to seek advantage however, and Ieyasu at first chose a more indirect path to power. He began by seeking out advantageous marriages for his sons, gaining powerful allies and growing his family’s wealth, land, and military might. Hideyoshi had sought to prevent such dynastic overreach, as the other members of the council loudly protested, but Tokugawa was a seasoned political intriguer and was careful to avoid too large a provocation. There were other clashes involving Ieyasu. Shortly after Hideyoshi’s death he supported a cadre of generals against a rival member of the council, Ishida Mitsunari, forcing the latter to resign as regent. Then he sought alliances with disaffected members of rival clans, strengthening his military position further. He eventually grew to be such a threat that an attempt was made on his life. The attempt came at Fushimi castle on September 12, 1599, and involved both Hideyoshi’s own vassals and another member of the council. Ieyasu’s first instinct was to kill all the conspirators, but in the end he used their treachery for his own advantage, currying favor through forgiveness with those he felt could offer him an edge. If he were to realize his ambitions, he saw a war coming. It would be Ishida Mitsunari who emerged as Ieyasu’s chief rival. He was a powerful man in command of fully half of Japan’s forces, as well as the child heir, but it seems that Ieyasu had the measure of him from the start. Mitsunari, afraid of Ieyasu’s power, hatched a plot to kill him. When word of this reached Ieyasu’s vassals, they attacked Mitsunari and would have killed
